Hello Naida, 

I know we haven’t spoken in some time. I’m sorry for that. So, In the last letter, you asked me about my first year in university. Well, my first year as a student was an interesting one. My concept of university was different from what I had imagined before. My group and I didn’t know very much about university at that moment, that’s why we often asked  sophomores about a lot of things. The main trouble with university then was that I couldn’t get used to that new place. You wouldn’t believe how it was difficult for me to become acquainted with new people. But nevertheless, I managed to overcome all the challenges. 

The first year in university gave me so much knowledge of English. I found out more interesting things about England history, music, sport, food, etc.

After the first year of study I became more responsible and adult. 

This year was special because it was the first.

Well, got to go now. Drop me a line when you are free!

Your friend, 

Fatima

“Daddy Long-legs”. Exercise 15(b)

In the last Judy’s letter, we can see how Judy and her penmanship have changed. She is not that little girl anymore who was surprised by everything around her. Now she only focuses on learning. I think her attitude to her Daddy has changed too. She seems more serious. Whereas previously, Judy told her Daddy everything what was going on in her life in details, but now she seems very calm and composed.

 I think that the growing distrust towards her Daddy affected her. She lost hope that all her letters had been read by him. But, in spite of that fact, she continues to share her emotions with him, but of course, not like before.

Regarding to her last sentence in the letter, I cannot say for sure what she had meant. But I think as the study has become the major part of her life, she may be quite serious. 

Saint Paul's Cathedral    

a cathedral in central London, which is the largest Protestant church in the UK and one of the best-known buildings in London. It was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and built between 1676 and 1710. A previous cathedral in the same place was destroyed in the Great Fire of London (1666). It is said to be one of the finest pieces of architecture in Europe.

There are three Galleries and 17 bells in the Cathedral. The largest bell is called Great Paul. The funerals of a lot of notable figures have occured at the cathedral.

The cathedral has a very substantial crypt, holding over 200 memorials, and serves as both the Order of the British Empire Chapel and the Treasury.

St Paul's is home to other plaques, carvings, statues, memorials and tombs of famous British figures including:

• General Sir Isaac Brock
• Sir Edwin Lutyens
• Sir Arthur Sullivan
• Lord Kitchener
• The Duke of Wellington

Most of the memorials commemorate the British military, including several lists of servicemen who died in action, the most recent being the Gulf War. Also remembered are poets, painters, clergy and residents of the local parish. There are lists of the Bishops and cathedral Deans for the last thousand years.

Modern-day.

The Royal Family holds most of their important marriages, christenings and funerals at Westminster Abbey, but St Paul's was used for the marriage of Charles, Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer. 

The cathedral is open to the public, with a charge for non-worshipping visitors.

As one of the famous and important buildings in London, St. Paul’s Cathedral are also often appear to be the location of filming, three of whom are Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Sherlock Holmes, and Star Trek Into Darkness.

St. Paul’s is a lasting monument to the glory of God and a symbol of hope and strength of the city and the United Kingdom. It embodies the spiritual life and heritage of the British people.

The Tower of London

Historic castle 

The Tower of London is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It’s one of the oldest buildings in the city. The Tower is a visual symbol of the Norman Conquest of England. It was built by William the Conqueror in 1066 as a strong fortress to protect the city. Nowadays it is considered to be the most valuable monument of Medieval military architecture surviving in England.

Purpose of the the Tower of London

Throughout the history the Tower of London was not only a fortress. For many years starting from the Tudor period it was a royal residence. Then, in 16th and 17th centuries it was used as a prison, where lots of political and religious figures were held. The Tower is also known as a place of torture and execution, although only seven people were executed within the Tower. The more common place for executions was the notorious Tower Hill, north of the castle.

Later the Tower of London was the Royal Mint, an armoury, an observatory, a zoo and a treasury. Since the time when it was a zoo, there is still a tradition to keep at least six ravens at the Tower. It is believed that they bring good luck if they stay there. Their wings are cut so that they can’t fly away. They are fed with meat and biscuits every day.

Today the Tower

Today the Tower is one of the country’s most popular tourist attractions. It is a museum where the beautiful jewels of the British royal family are on display. The security of the Tower is ensured by a military garrison and by the “beefeaters” who still wear their picturesque Tudor uniform.

Conclusion

The Tower of London will always be remembered as a symbol of royal power, a fortress for the monarch, and a prison for the monarch’s enemies.

      The Palace of Westminster.

The Palace of Westminster is a Victorian Gothic masterpiece designed by Sir Charles Barry and A.W. Pugin to replace the medieval parliament buildings, which burnt to the ground in 1834. The result of their work is one of the great buildings of the Victorian era and acts as home to the Houses of Parliament.

The Houses of Parliament is made up of the House of Commons and the House of Lords and is also known as the Palace of Westminster. It has been in place since the 12th century although there has been some damage – including an attempt to blow it up – every room is full of history.

HISTORY

Tradition suggests that a Roman temple to Apollo stood here by the River Thames. That temple was supposedly destroyed in an earthquake, and no trace of it remains, if, indeed, it ever existed. we are on safe historical foundations when it comes to the Saxon period, for we know that a timber church dedicated to St Peter was built here in the 8th century.

To distinguish the new church from St Paul's in the centre of London, the new church was known as the West Minster, while St Paul's was known as the East Minster. The name was contracted over time until the area around the church became known as Westminster. In the 10th century Westminster church was re-established as a Benedictine monastery.

In the early years of the 11th century, King Cnut built a royal palace on Thorney Island, a rise of high ground in the River Tyburn. The most influential Saxon king, however, was Edward the Confessor, who founded Westminster Abbey and built a new royal palace beside his great new monastic foundation.

Britain is administered from the Palace of Westminster in London. This is also known as the Houses of Parliament. Parliament is made up of two chambers — the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The members of the House of Lords are not elected: they qualify to sit in the House because they are bishops of the Church of England, aristocrats who have inherited their seats from their fathers, people with titles. There has been talk of reform in this century because many Britons think that this system is undemocratic. The House of Commons, by contrast, has 651 seats which are occupied by Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected by the British public. The United Kingdom is divided into constituencies, each of which has an elected MP in the House of Commons. Each of the major political parties appoints a representative (candidate) to compete for each seat. Smaller parties may have a candidate in only a few constituencies. There may be five or more parties, fighting for one seat, but only one person — the candidate who gets the greatest number of votes — can win. Some parties win a lot of seats and some win very few, or none at all. The Queen, who is the Head of State, opens and closes Parliament. All new laws are debated (discussed) by MPs in the Commons, then debated in the Lords, and finally signed by the Queen. All three are part of Parliament in Britain.

While there will always be tight security, it is possible to visit the Houses of Parliament and enjoy the majesty of one of the most important buildings in London. It will be hard to determine which is going to be the most enjoyable part of the trip, listening to the debates of the Parliamentarians, walking around the building and being amazed by the architecture, or the chance to have afternoon tea on the banks of the River Thames 

Guided Tours

All guided tours are serviced by fully qualified Blue Badge guides and will take around 90 minutes. It includes both houses and there is the chance to gain additional information. Some of the areas that are covered are:

Queen’s Robing Roo

This is the room where the Queen gets ready for special occasions. It is in this room that there is a stunning marble fireplace, paintings by William Duce that depict the chivalric virtues, and in the past, this room was used for debate by the Lords after there the building was damaged by a bomb during war.

Royal Gallery

It is here that state ceremonies and presentations are held. Some of the highlights of the room are the statues depicting former Kings including Richard I and Edward III amongst others. Daniel Maclise's paintings are displayed around the room and they showcase certain scenes such as the Death of Nelson and scenes from the Napoleonic Wars. It has been used as a court in the past, with cases such as Lord de Clifford’s and then a charge of bigamy leveled at Earl Russell.

Central Lobby

Just standing in this lobby will give the visitor a taste of the grandeur and splendor of the building. With beautifully designed floors, it is the place where the entrances to the House of Lord, House of Commons, and Westminster Hall meet. Grilles still cover the windows and they have been in the palace since 1834 and were previously installed in the Ladies Room to prevent male politicians from being distracted by the women who were present in the room. They had to be taken down when suffragettes chained themselves to the grilles and have since been placed in the lobby.

But

Members’ Lobby

It is here that members can collect their mail and are ushered past a statue of Churchill while the door is guarded when members are seated. The arch known as the Churchill Arch was built at his suggestion and was to be a monument to those who perished in the war. He guards one side and the World War I Prime Minister, Lloyd George, guards the other.

Commons Chamber

The green seats are famous and well-known around world. In its present form, the seats have been situated in the Common Chambers since 1941. As it was rebuilt during the war, it is less grand than other parts of the building and there is a large area where the press and public can sit and watch the debates.

Statues in the Palace

There have been statues in the House of Parliament since Victorian times and it is estimated that there are more than 300, with many showing monarchs dating back to Norman times. There are many of Queen Victoria and one has been added of the architect himself – Sir Charles Barry 

 Westminster Abbey

Westminster Abbey is a Gothic monastery church in London that is the traditional place of coronation and burial for English monarchs. Neither a cathedral nor a parish church, Westminster Abbey is a place of worship owned by the royal family.

Located next to the Houses of Parliament in the heart of London, Westminster Abbey is a must-see for any London visitor. With its oldest parts dating to the year 1050, the Abbey contains some of the most glorious medieval architecture in London. Because of its royal connections, it was spared King Henry VIII's general assault on monastic buildings during the Reformation.

The interior is a veritable museum of English history. Among many highlights are the medieval coronation throne; Poet's Corner with its memorials to William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, and other giants of literature; and the tombs of Queen Elizabeth I, "Bloody" Queen Mary, explorer David Livingstone and naturalist Charles Darwin.

One of the most attractive 
constructions is Westminster Abbey. It attracts visitors not only with its architectural glory but also with its rich history and cultural importance.

Westminster Abbey is the place where many outstanding Englishmen are buried, among them well-known poets, writers, scientists, statesmen, painters and many others. Many people who visit the Abbey want to commemorate such great men as William Shakespeare, Charles Darwin, Isaac Newton, Robert Burns, Bernard Show, Lord Byron, Walter Scott, Geoffrey Chaucer, and many others.

The history of Westminster Abbey dates back to the Middle Ages or even the earlier times, as 900 years ago St. Peter found the first church on the place, where the Abbey is now situated. The present building appeared during the reign of Henry III. There is one more reason why people are highly interested in Westminster Abbey. According to the ancient tradition all English kings and queens were crowned and wed here.

One of the most popular facade of the Abbey is the Poet’s Corner. The first poet to be buried at Poet’s Corner was Geoffrey Chaucer. Even the great Edmund Spencer was buried here. William Shakespeare who was originally buried at Stratford-upon-Avon was moved here in 1740, when a monument designed by William Kent in honor of the great poet appeared in Poet’s Corner.

The Chapter House is one of the must-see places at the Abbey. It was from here that the monastery functioned and it also used to be the venue where the parliament met in the 14th century.

No visit to Westminster Abbey is complete without a visit to the library, which has an impressive collection of historical books, manuscripts and archived materials.

Insomnia.

Insomnia is a sleep disorder that regularly affects millions of people worldwide. In short, individuals with insomnia find it difficult to fall asleep or stay asleep. The effects can be devastating.

Insomnia commonly leads to daytime sleepiness, lethargy, and a general feeling of being unwell, both mentally and physically. Mood swings, irritability, and anxiety are common associated symptoms.

Insomnia has also been associated with a higher risk of developing chronic diseases. According to the National Sleep Foundation, 30-40 percent of American adults report that they have had symptoms of insomnia within the last 12 months, and 10-15 percent of adults claim to have chronic insomnia.

Here, we will discuss what insomnia is, its causes, symptoms,  and possible treatments.

Causes

Insomnia can be caused by physical and psychological factors. There is sometimes an underlying medical condition that causes chronic insomnia, while transient insomnia may be due to a recent event or occurrence. Insomnia is commonly caused by:

• Disruptions in circadian rhythm - jet lag, job shift changes, high altitudes, environmental noise, extreme heat or cold. 
• Psychological issues - bipolar disorder, depression, anxiety disorders, or psychotic .
• Medical conditions - chronic pain, chronic fatigue syndrome, congestive heart failure, angina, acid-reflux disease (GERD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, sleep apnea, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, hyperthyroidism, arthritis, brain lesions, tumors, stroke.
• Other factors - sleeping next to a snoring partner, parasites, genetic conditions, overactive mind, pregnancy.                                            

Signs and symptoms

• Insomnia itself may be a symptom of an underlying medical condition. However, there are many signs and symptoms that are associated with insomnia:
  • Difficulty falling asleep at night.
  • Waking during the night.
  • Waking earlier than desired.
  • Still feeling tired after a night's sleep.
  • Daytime fatigue or sleepiness.
  • Irritability, depression, or anxiety.
  • Poor concentration and focus.
  • Being uncoordinated, an increase in errors or accidents.
  • Tension headaches (feels like a tight band around head).
  • Difficulty socializing.
  • Gastrointestinal symptoms.
  • Worrying about sleeping.
  Sleep deprivation can cause other symptoms. The afflicted person may wake up not feeling fully awake and refreshed, and may have a sensation of tiredness and sleepiness throughout the day.
  Having problems concentrating and focusing on tasks is common for people with insomnia. According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, 20 percent of non-alcohol related car crash injuries are caused by driver sleepiness.

Types

• Insomnia includes a wide range of sleeping disorders, from lack of sleep quality to lack of sleep quantity. Insomnia is commonly separated into three types:
  
  
  
  • Transient insomnia - occurs when symptoms last up to three nights.
  • Acute insomnia - also called short-term insomnia. Symptoms persist for several weeks.
  • Chronic insomnia - this type lasts for months, and sometimes years. According to the National Institutes of Health, the majority of chronic insomnia cases are side effects resulting from another primary problem.

Treatment

Good sleep hygiene, including avoiding electronics before bed, can help treat insomnia

.

Some types of insomnia resolve when the underlying cause is treated or wears off. In general, insomnia treatment focuses on determining the cause.

Once identified, this underlying cause can be properly treated or corrected.

In addition to treating the underlying cause of insomnia, both medical and non-pharmacological (behavioral) treatments may be used as therapies.

Non-pharmacological approaches include cognitive behaviorlal therapy (CBT) in one-on-one counseling sessions or group therapy:

Medical treatments for insomnia include:

• prescription sleeping pills
• antidepressants
• sleep aids available online or over-the-counter
• antihistamines
• melatonin, which can be purchased online
• ramelteon

Risk factors

• Insomnia can affect people of any age; it is more common in adult females than adult males. It can undermine school and work performance, as well as contributing to obesity, anxiety, depression, irritability, concentration problems, memory problems, poor immune system function, and reduced reaction time.

• Some people are more likely to experience insomnia. These include:
  • travelers, particularly through multiple time zones
  • shift workers with frequent changes in shifts (day vs. night)
  • the elderly
  • users of illegal drugs
  • adolescent or young adult students
  • pregnant women
  • menopausal women
  • those with mental health disorders